汪洋中的一条船（2 of 2）：东南亚海盗 Piracy

数年前跟拖船公司签约，谈起船员难求。拖船的船员多数来自印尼的岛屿，他们在新加坡工作两三年后水涨船高，跳槽到杜拜赚油钱。这些船员在小小的拖船上生活，拖船便是他们的家。跟他们见面后，不由想起新加坡历史上的Orang Laut，他们是Orang Laut的现代版，不过从事的是正当的劳力活动。

长期以来，东南亚是海盗的温床。在东南亚从事海盗活动的除了柔佛的海人(Orang Laut)之外，还有廖内林嘉群岛（Lingga）的锡卡纳人(Orang Sikarna)，棉兰老岛（Mindanao）的拉囊人(Orang Lanuns)，苏拉威西（Celebes）的武吉斯人(Bugis)，苏禄海（Sulu Sea）的巴拉尼尼人(Balanini)，少数暹罗人及中国人。来自北婆罗洲的Iranun 据说是最凶残的海盗，他们在英国、荷兰和西班牙在东南亚的争霸战中渔翁得利，在菲律宾、香料群岛和马六甲海峡通行无阻，十八世纪是他们的黄金时代。

http://nmsmandarindocents.wordpress.com/2008/05/18/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E4%BA%9A%E6%B5%B7%E7%9B%97%E6%B4%BB%E5%8A%A8/

（Orang Laut在廖内群岛的典型村落，传统上Orang Laut以海盗为生，扶持了室里佛逝、马六甲王朝和柔佛王朝）

（Illanoon （Iranun） pirate prahu. NAS 1900）

郑和第二次下西洋（永乐五年，1407），在巨港歼灭危害马六甲海峡安全的海盗集团，并把首领陈祖义带回中国受审处死。陈祖义在明太祖朱元璋时代在广东犯法，全家逃到苏门答腊巨港，成为海盗，他“充为头目，什是豪横，凡有经过客人船只，辄便劫夺财物”（马欢，《瀛涯胜览》，旧港国条），势力逐渐雄厚，不仅掠夺商旅，阻碍贸易，还劫持西洋各国使节，“梗我声教”，“贡使往来者苦之”（《明史》，三佛齐条）。

18和19世纪时，来自欧洲的殖民者陆续抵达这个地区，海盗活动也日益猖獗。某种程度上，欧洲人是出于经济欲望，企图控制香料贸易才来到这个地区的。当时，香料驱动世界经济的发展，就像今天石油控制世界命脉一样。海峡的商贸交通愈发繁忙，吸引个别群体的航海部族走上海盗之路，以打劫为生。

（东南亚的海盗活动基本上是当年历史的延伸，受打压时就克制一些。上：海盗袭击的地点，2004。下：新加坡海域附近海盗袭击船只，2011年9月8日至11日）

在那个年代，当海盗似乎比老老实实地做生意更加体面。根据蒙西阿都拉（Munshi Abdullah，the Father of Modern Malay literature）关于苏丹胡申（Sultan Hussien）向东印度公司申诉钱不够用的记载，19世纪初叶的马来王族认为当海盗是件很光彩的事：

苏丹几次申诉英国给予他们的津贴不够用，莱佛士向他建议开设一家贸易商行。苏丹和天猛公听了莱佛士的话，笑着说：“那不是本王族的习俗，经商将使我们在其他统治者面前失去尊严。”莱佛士听了脸色改变，眉头深锁，但还是笑笑说：“苏丹殿下，我对这种奇异的习俗感到惊奇，为什么说经商是那么邪恶，是一种耻辱呢？难道海上掠劫反而不是耻辱？”苏丹说：“海上掠劫已经成为我们与生俱来的权利，因此不是耻辱。” ---A H Hill, ‘Founding of Singapore described by Munshi Abdullah’ in Singapore 150 years

（Hikayat Abdullar written by Munshi Abdullah, 1849）

新加坡的商家们联名上书英国东印度公司，要求当局扫荡猖獗的海盗，但是英国东印度公司基于缺乏海事法律条文，再加上海军部队资源匮乏，无法把海盗们绳之以法。这情形在1837年起了突破性的变化。当时荷兰在廖内林嘉群岛打击海盗，引起英国的恐慌，担心荷兰进一步扩展势力，威胁到新加坡。海峡殖民地政府终于获得海事法的相关授权，并与荷兰取得协议，联手出击。

（英国船长所驾驶的Royalist在靠近Palawan Island的水域被马来海盗追逐，这是他事后的描绘。NAS 1852）

荷兰与海峡殖民地政府成功打击海盗，还得感谢同样靠海盗发财的天猛公伊布拉欣 Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim。1835年苏丹胡申在马六甲逝世，英国殖民地政府为了确立在国际法眼中海峡殖民地的合法性，不需要一个马来统治者，所以干脆让这个职位消失。

http://remembersingapore.wordpress.com/2012/02/21/last-royal-palace-of-singapore/

天猛公伊布拉欣崛起成为马来族的领袖，为海盗提供情报，并且为各马来海盗的头目提供保护网，势力逐日扩张。1836年，海峡殖民地总督Samuel George Bonham决定以鬼打鬼的方式，与天猛公伊布拉欣合作，一方面压制海盗，另一方面安排机会给他们在新加坡从良，安家落户。Bonham向加尔各答（Calcutta）的东印度公司总部报告：

Our young Native Chief (Ibrahim) informed me that if the government would receive them, 270 small boats containing families, who had heretofore more or less depended on Piracy for a livelihood, would resort to Singapore and reside there under his control….I shall endeavour to make proper arrangement for their location…. Locating them somewhere out of our jurisdiction but in the Territories of the Temenggong, our Native Chief, so immediately in our vicinity as to be under my strict surveillance would be preferable to having them on the Island.

（周游于黑白道之间的天猛公伊布拉欣 Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim）

（Masjid Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim，Telok Blangah Road，新加坡唯一由柔佛管辖的回教堂）

伊布拉欣穿梭于黑白道之间，继续与接任总督Butterworth（1843年）合作，建立起很好的交情，Butterworth向东印度公司总部汇报打击海盗的进展，印度总部还颁了个特别奖给伊布拉欣，褒扬他的贡献，从此对英政府忠心耿耿。通过Butterworth与伊布拉欣的交情，伊布拉欣的两个孩子都进入英校念书，学习英文和马来文，为以后的现代柔佛铺路。

（1846年9月1日，Butterworth赠送给伊布拉欣的“奖章”。

The words inscribed on the blade of the sword: In the year 1845. This is a gift from the Lord Lieutenant of the Bath, Governor of the three settlements of Penang, Singapore, and Malacca to the Temenggong Seri Maharaja of Johore in token of the meritorious service rendered by Seri Maharaja in stamping out piracy, a task much appreciated by the Government of India.）

后来，伊布拉欣以港契制度吸引新加坡华人过海，开发柔佛，靠甘蜜致富，摆脱海盗的身份。伊布拉欣的大儿子阿布巴卡（Abu bakar）继承父业，进一步与英国人合作，落实英国人的政治体系，成为柔佛之父。

汪洋中的一条船（1 of 2）：侠盗索马里？Piracy

在我曾经服务过二十余年的新加坡海军生涯中，曾经见证过各只舰队从概念到成形、它们投入国际维和任务、印尼亚齐省的海啸救灾、伊拉克重建、打击海盗等，这个历程是新加坡国防茁壮成长的认证。

进入21世纪2000年代，远在6400公里外的索马里（Somalia）经历了十年内战，几乎进入无政府状态，海盗猖獗，光天白日下持枪抢劫路过亚丁湾（Gulf of Aden）的商船，对国际船运的安全与船员的生计造成恐慌。2008年，联合国通过第1838条决议，允许各国组织海军到亚丁湾，进入索马里水域打击海盗，维护航运。

（sinking of Ekawat Nava 5 on Nov 18, 2008 by Indian Navy INS Tabar）

亚丁湾是连接欧亚的苏伊士运河的航线必经的海域，也是波斯湾输出原油非常重要的航道，全球11%的石油通过亚丁湾和苏伊士运河运抵各地的炼油厂。

远至非洲的索马里跟新加坡有何相干？2000年代初，新加坡的命脉马六甲海峡海盗只手遮天，使到繁忙的马六甲海峡成为全世界航道最高风险区，促成新马印三国海军在2004年第一次联手巡航，维护马六甲海峡的安全（代号MALSINDO）。新加坡以海洋为生，90%的GDP通过海洋，猖獗的海盗行为只会使心口永远的痛，所以新加坡从2009年起，每年都派一艘战舰参与联军活动（CTF-151），打击索马里海盗。

（在马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡的海盗活动）

（新加坡注册的商船属于高风险群）

十年内战，造成索马里中央政府瓦解，海军完全失去防卫力量。在强弩弓末之际，人性的丑陋面暴露无疑，外国的渔船纷纷涌入索马里的水域混饭吃，无良的商船也在索马里岸外排弃工业废料，造成鱼群大量死亡。一些索马里前军人、渔民与对先进的导航仪器了如指掌的技术专家以保护当地渔民的生计为由，结党成为海盗，通过劫持外国商船，赚取赎金。整个过程，有如宋朝梁山泊水寨的现代版。他们背后也许有军阀与恐怖分子撑腰，提供军械与情报，同时分一杯羹，有财大家发。

（海盗拥有先进的军备）

海盗的组织严谨，装备完善，成员多数是20多至30多岁的年轻人，来自索马里东北部的 Puntland，可能有五个党派，总人数约1000人。单单在2008年，他们在阿拉伯海和印度洋对路经此处的三万艘商船进行111次攻击，42次成功掳获商船。到了2009年，几乎每一天都有一宗攻击事件。

索马里海盗逐年扩大运作范围，收入不菲，2009年的赎金达5800万美金，2010年2亿3800万美金。海盗也为其他相关行业制造商机，估计2010年，约70亿至120亿美金花在航运保险、海军支援、法律诉讼、船上的防卫系统等。

（索马里海盗逐年扩大运作范围。BBC 2011）

索马里海盗宣称，只要船东愿意支付赎金，他们就不会伤害人质，而且他们还拨出赎金救济索马里的穷人。海盗头子甚至公开宣称，自己是索马里的“海军”，因为索马里政府无力维护海洋权益，结果造成外国船只侵犯索马里领海主权，并掠夺当地渔业资源，甚至倾倒废物，赎金是这些船只主人对索马里的必要补偿。换言之，国家不幸，官逼民反，民间出于自卫自强，才会出现“侠盗索马里”。

（Republic of Singapore Navy ship RSS Endeavour participated in fighting Somalia pirates in 2011. MINDEF website）

(When encountered with RSS Endeavour, the suspected pirates abandoning skiff onto dhow. MINDEF website)

至于近在咫尺，长900公里的马六甲海峡，一直都是连接南中国海和印度洋的重要通道。到了近代，海峡更是连接东亚国家、欧洲、苏伊士运河以及波斯湾周边的原油输出国的航线上重要的一站。马六甲海峡水道狭窄，其中有成千上万个小岛屿，同时也是许多河流的入海口，成为海盗藏身，躲避追缉的理想地。

（马来西亚北部的海盗船）

古老的新加坡也是海盗的温床。1349年中国元朝航海家汪大渊的《岛夷志略》记载，有一些华人住在淡马锡，他们椎髻，穿短布衫，系青布捎。商船经过龙牙门，由东到西空船没事，由西向东载货船会被海盗洗劫，所以水手都不敢在此地停留。淡马锡与龙牙门都是指新加坡。

龙牙门: 门以单马锡番两山相交，若龙牙状，中有水道以间之。田瘠。稻少。气候热，四五月多淫雨。俗好劫掠。昔酋长掘地而得玉冠，岁之始，以见月为正初，酋长戴冠披服受贺，今亦递相传授。男女兼中国人居之。多椎髻，穿短布衫，系青布稍。产粗降真、斗锡。贸易之货，赤金、青缎、花布、处瓷器、铁鼎之类。盖以山无美材，贡无异货。以通泉州之贸易，皆剽窃之物也。舶往西洋，本番置之不问。回船之际，至吉利门，舶人须驾箭棚、张布幕、利器械以防之。贼舟二三百只必然来，迎敌数日，若侥幸顺风，或不遇之，否则人为所戮，货为所有，则人死系乎顷刻之间也。

也有传说柔佛海峡水道狭窄，新加坡东北部樟宜海岸与德光岛之间的炮台岛是海盗的巢穴，他们抢劫过往商船，杀人无数。自然与人为的灾害，使人对炮台岛水域闻风丧胆。

http://navalants.blogspot.com/2009/08/blog-post.html

14世纪时来自印尼巨港的拜里米苏拉（Parameswara）在新加坡立地为王，后来被暹罗追杀，逃到马六甲，借助由海人（Orang Luat）组成的海盗的支持，才得以在马六甲扎根，最终建立起叱咤一时的马六甲王朝。

http://navalants.blogspot.com/2012/02/fort-canning.html

From Titanic to Costa Concordia， 100 years journey to ship safety

I worked in the field of ship engineering for more than 2 decades. Knowing the imperfection of statistical rules and standards applied to engineering design, how would ship operator’s errors lead to catastrophe, the difficulties in imparting safety procedures and culture among a team of international crew who speak different languages, and the vulnerability of individuals in the ocean, my family and I have not board a cruise liner for holiday. My response may be extreme. However, what I have not told them was the ship accidents that I investigated and many nightmares that woke me up in the middle of the night. They made my heart very heavy.

Another incident of happiness turned into misfortune happened on Friday 9.42pm local time, 13 Jan 2012. The Italian Cruise ship Costa Concordia leaning on its starboard side in the waters off Giglio Island, 25km from the Italian mainland, after running aground. A dramatic night-time rescue swung into action after the 114,500-ton Costa Concordia hit a reef or sand bar as passengers were having dinner at about 8pm. A gash of 50m was ripped across the side of the ship.

(Costa Concordia capsized off Giglio Island. ST Jan 2012)

The cruise liner's captain then tried to steer the ship towards shallow waters near Giglio's small port to make evacuation by lifeboat easier. But after the ship started listing badly, lifeboat evacuation was no longer feasible. Some passengers, apparently in panic, had jumped off the ship into the sea. Five helicopters from the coast guard, navy and air force took turns airlifting survivors still aboard and ferrying them to safety.

There were 4,234 passengers and crew on board, 4,165 survived.  About 70 passengers were either missing or died.

(Thick steel is just like a sheet of paper. ST Jan 2012)

By the time the first lifeboat was launched, it was 80 minutes after the hull was punctured. Passengers complained that the crew failed to give instructions on how to evacuate the Costa Concordia.

'It was hell... They told us to stay calm but you could see the fear on everyone's faces, including the crew,' ANSA news agency quoted an unnamed passenger as saying.

Cruise ship worker Fabio Costa told the BBC: 'Everything just started to fall and everybody started to panic and run.'

(Distressed passengers. ST Jan 2012)

Christine Hammer, 65, from Bonn, Germany, was shivering near the harbour of Porto Santo Stefano after stepping off a ferry from Giglio. She was wearing elegant dinner clothes - a cashmere sweater, a silk scarf - along with a large pair of hiking boots that a kind islander gave her after she had lost her shoes in the scramble to escape. Left behind were her passport, credit cards and phone.

'We heard a crash. Glasses and plates fell and we went out of the dining room and were told that it wasn't anything dangerous,' she said.

'There were scenes of panic like on the Titanic. I don't know how this could happen. The captain is crazy,' passenger Mara Parmegiani told Italian media by relating Costa Concordia with Titanic.

The Titanic story has been told and retold. Titanic is a British liner that also had its hull ripped open, but by an iceberg, on 14 April 1912. It was 100 years ago. With less than 2 days left on their 7-day journey, Titanic’s passengers began to look forward to reaching New York. The 3^rd class common rooms buzzed with excitement, while the social elite of 1^st class held a gala dinner. Within the next 3 hours after hitting the iceberg, the 270m length, 50,000 ton ship (about the size of an aircraft carrier) ripped into 2 pieces from around midship and rested at 3.8km beneath the ocean.  Out of 2228 passengers and crew boarded for the maiden voyage from Southampton to New York, only 705 survived.  

(The last picture of Titanic. 1912)

(A section of the bow after 100 years in the ocean)

The key differences between early 20^th century and early 21^st century for the two tragedies are time of optimism and progress. In the 1910s, an industrial boom in the US made a few wealthy and a better life for countless others. In the 2010s, industrialisation has been more or less saturated in US and Europe. These two continents are heading towards unprecedented national debt and economic downturn.

(Chasing after an American dream. Money recovered by undersea robot)

The iceberg that collided with the Titanic in the North Atlantic Ocean most likely came from Greenland. Warm weather caused huge chunks of ice to break off Greenland's glaciers. These icebergs floated south with the ocean current. The actual damage to the ship consisted of 6 ruptured seams in the riveted plates at starboard forward. They distributed along the forward 6 compartments (93m, Titanic has 16 compartments) at about 6m below water line.

(The iceberg that collided with Titanic. Photo taken 3 days after the collision. 1912)

(6 ruptured seams spanned across 93m of the starboard of the bow at 6m below waterline.)

- Apr 14^th  11:35 pm: Lookouts spotted the iceberg 1/4 mile ahead.

-11:40 pm:  Titanic collided with the iceberg and damaged the hull

-Apr 15^th Midnight: Watertight compartments were filling; water spilled over the tops of the transverse bulkheads

-1:20 am: The bow pitches; water flooded through anchor-chain holes

-2:00 am: The bow continued to submerge; propellers lifted out of the water.

-2:12 am:  The stern raised up out of the water; the bow, filling with water, grew heavier

-2:18 am: With 40,000 ton of water, the bow ripped loose; the stern rose to almost vertical

-2:20 am: The stern slipped beneath the surface

-2:29 am: The bow strike the ocean floor

-2:56 am: The stern strike the ocean floor.  600m from the bow.

(A Titanic's lifeboat in the choppy sea, waiting for rescue. Reuters 1912)

On September 1, 1985, oceanographer Bob Ballard and his crew discovered the wreck of the Titanic about 350 miles southeast of Newfoundland, Canada. In 1991, the first purely scientific team visited the site. The dive was called the IMAX dive because the purpose was to create a film for IMAX theatres. The Soviet submersibles used in the dive were capable of staying submerged for 20 hours. The submersibles were equipped with 110,000 lumen lamps for deep sea exploration. Usually the dive was about 12 hours.  It took 2 hours for the submersibles to dive and another 2 hours to surface. 8 hours were spent on research and recovery.

(Submarine deployed for IMAX dive. c.1990s)

(Internal compartment of the submarine. Note that the crew were not permitted to eat, drink or shit in the congested submarine. c.1990s)

During IMAX dive, a chunk of metal lying on the ocean floor that once was a part of the Titanic's hull was recovered. The piece of steel was 25mm thick with three rivet holes, each 30mm in diameter. This dead body enable extensive researches to uncover additional clues to the cause of the rapid sinking of the Titanic.

Some studies have concluded that the watertight compartments contributed to the disaster by keeping the flood waters in the bow of the ship. If there had been no compartments at all, the incoming water would have spread out, and the Titanic would have remained horizontal. Eventually, the ship would have sunk, but the ship would have remained afloat for at least another six hours and even days before foundering. This amount of time would have been sufficient for nearby ships to rescue all of the passengers and crew.

The first hint that brittle fracture of the hull steel contributed to the Titanic disaster came following the recovery of a piece of the hull steel from the Titanic wreck. The condition of the edges of the piece of steel appeared almost shattered, like broken china. The metal showed no evidence bending or deformation. Typical high-quality ship steel is more ductile and deforms rather than breaks.

Similar observation was found in the damaged hull steel of the Titanic's sister ship, Olympic, after a collision with a Royal Navy ship while leaving harbour on September 20, 1911. The plate failure exhibited little plastic deformation and the edges were unusually sharp, having the appearance of brittle fractures.

(The series of Liberty ships suffered 8 of such hull fractures during World War II. Similar observation was found in the damaged hull steel of the Titanic's sister ship, Olympic. c.1940s )

The mechanics of ductile-brittle behaviour near freezing temperature came as a result of the large number of hull failures of Liberty ships during World War II.  8 of these fractures forced abandonment of ships at sea. Fractures of the steel plate in Liberty ships only occurred at low sea temperatures for which the impact energy of the steel was 20 Joules. At low temperature, steel changes property from ductile to brittle and prone to cracking. This is called Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT). Manganese in structural steel helps to lower the DBTT and thus improve the strength at low temperature. Sulphur which commonly found in iron ore increases the DBTT and should be avoided.

(The transition point causes steel changing its property from ductile to brittle is called Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature DBTT)

Note that the impact energy of steel recovered from Titanic was found to be very low (brittle) at -1°C.  This was the estimated sea temperature at the time of collision with iceberg. However, it was the top quality steel in that era.

Titanic carried lifeboats for just over half of the passengers and crew on board although the Titanic could carry two rows of lifeboats. One row was removed before the voyage to make the deck more aesthetically pleasing. The 20 lifeboats actually exceeded British Board of Trade regulations requirements by 10% capacity. At that time, lifeboats were viewed as a means of abandoning ship for a rescue vessel in near distance. The ship was seen as its own lifeboat. The technology of the time also did not provide for a reliable means for launching a large number of lifeboats in short time.

(The bow of Titanic permanently rested at 3810m on the ocean floor. c.1990s)

(The stern of Titanic permanently rested at 3810m on the ocean floor. It is about 600m apart from the bow. c.1990s)

(Luggage tag for second class passengers recovered by undersea robot)

(Titanic was owned by White Star Line. The cup was recovered by undersea robot)

(Logometer, used to determine ship speed was recovered by undersea robot)

Titanic led on to massive improvement in safety at sea. The first version of SOLAS convention was established 2 years later in 1914. Improvements in ship safety include:

• Raise the height of watertight transverse bulkheads to main deck level.
• Minimum lifeboat capacity equal to the number of passengers and crew aboard at each side of the ship, along with other emergency equipment and safety procedures
• Mandatory 24/7 radio watch for large ships
• Ice patrol to warn ships of nearby ice fields. (Since then, no incident of collision with iceberg was reported.)

How about the fate of the two sister ships Olympic and Britannic? Olympic was requisitioned by the British Government and deployed as a troopship during World War I. Olympic struck and sank a German submarine, U103. After the war the ship returned to commercial service. Bad luck returned on 15th May 1934 when the ship collided with the lost of 7 lives. The last voyage ended in Southampton on April 12th 1935.

Britannic was requisitioned and deployed as a hospital ship during the war. On 21st November 1916, Britannic struck a mine (it could also be struck by a German’s torpedo) in the Kea Channel, Aegean Sea. The Britannic began to sink like Titanic but at 4 years later.

Between Nov 2011 and Apr 2012, a Titanic exhibition was shown in the Art Science Museum - MBS. I was given the opportunities to provide several one-hour guides to the visitors. Judging from the grand setting, I do not think MBS was making money despite that the charges was $28 per head. However, since MBS was, and is still making big money from gambling business, it makes sense for the MBS management to contribute some money back to the society to develop art and culture in Singapore.

(Between Nov 2011 and Apr 2012, a Titanic exhibition was shown in the Art Science Museum - MBS. The group of docents and I posted in front of the ship model and the grand staircase. Nov 2011)

淡马锡，环古谜城

到新加坡东部绕一圈，以淡马锡命名的小学、中学、初级学院和理工学院分布在勿洛（Bedok）和淡滨尼（Tampines）。至于新加坡最大的投资公司淡马锡控股，无论怎么划清界限，说与政府无关，但在百姓眼里，别的不说，单单是CPF这一人民的资产都授权给淡马锡控股投资，官方资料说投资收益17%，远远超过国际价码， 但CPF利息2.5%，不成比例，真是掉进黄河都洗不清。

淡马锡（Temasek）的原意是一个在海中浮起来的城市（海城），来自古爪哇文Tumasik。将旧新加坡称为淡马锡的起源不详，但少说也可以追溯到七八百年，甚至整千年前。14世纪中国元朝汪大渊的《岛夷志略》和15世纪的郑和航海图都清楚记载着“单马锡”这个地方，但是淡马锡本身却没有任何文字或史料记载。《岛夷志略》是汪大渊在1330年和1337年两度飘洋过海的经历，1349年书成。

（淡马锡，武备志）

既然称为海上“城市”，七八百年前的新加坡应该曾经拥有过豆蔻年华，欣欣向荣的日子。

中国宋朝赵汝适在1225年完成的《诸番志》写道：“（中国开往三佛齐的商船），冬月顺风，月余方至。凌牙门经商三分之一始入其国。” 

话说公元七世纪（中国唐朝），苏门答腊的室利佛逝（Sri Vijaya，Samboja，十世纪后称“三佛齐”）崛起，称雄马来群岛的时候，中国已经派僧侣到佛逝国取经。唐高宗咸亨二年（671年），高僧义净到佛逝国取经，停留六个月。根据义净所著《大唐西域求法高僧传》记录，到过佛逝国的高僧，还有交州僧人运期、高昌法师彼岸、智岸，晋州善行师者、洛阳智弘法师、荆州江陵无行阐师、襄州襄阳僧人法郎，以及僧人孟怀业、道宏、贞固等。

当时中国可能称新加坡为“凌牙门”，凌牙是Lingga的译音，门是古代中国的出海要道，“水流峡中，两峰为门”。后来凌牙门演变成“龙牙门”，可能是因为福建话“凌”与“龙”同音。也有史学家认为龙牙门是指Labrador Park和圣淘沙之间的水域，因为当年海中有一块像龙牙一样的大礁石，1848年被英国殖民地政府炸毁。

http://navalants.blogspot.sg/2011/12/dragon-gate.html

《岛夷志略》记载淡马锡这个地方已经有“中国人”居住，使用“赤金、青缎、花布、处瓷器、铁鼎之类”。处州是江西省龙泉窑地区的一个县，当年江西瓷器已经在淡马锡使用，似乎印证了“有阳光的地方就有华人”的说法。淡马锡也是个海盗出没的地方，抢劫商船，谋财害命。为何当时居住在淡马锡的“中国人”竟然跟杀害中国同行的海盗相依为命呢？这是个谜。

“龙牙门            门以单马锡番两山相交，若龙牙，中有水道以间之。田瘠。稻少。气候热，四五月多淫雨。俗好劫掠。昔酋长掘地而得玉冠，岁之始，以见月为正初，酋长戴冠披服受贺，今亦递相传授。男女兼中国人居之。多椎髻，穿短布衫，系青布稍。〔地〕产粗降真、斗锡。贸易之货，〔用〕赤金、青缎、花布、处瓷器、铁鼎之类。盖以山无美材，贡无异货。以通｛众｝〔泉〕州之贸易，皆剽窃之物也。舶往西洋，本番置之不问。回船之际，至吉利门，舶人须驾箭棚、张布幕、利器械以防之。贼舟二三百只必然来迎，敌数日，若侥幸顺风，或不遇之，否则人为所戮，货为所有，则人死系乎顷刻之间也。”----《岛夷志略》（中华书局中外交通史籍丛刊苏继庼校释本，1981年，213、214）

（龙牙门屹立在Tanjong Berlayer Park，1850年被炸毁以加宽进入Keppel Port的水道。c.1823）

这些零星的记载，自然不足以填补新加坡在莱佛士登陆前的许多空白，但至少让我们了解新加坡并不是像殖民地教科书或是屹立在新加坡河口的莱佛士塑像所说的“莱佛士发现新加坡”。

关于那个“海上城市”的远古年代，还有一代一代流传下来的传说，由柔佛首相Tun Sri Lanang主持编写，1612年完成的《马来纪年》（Malay Annals）是重要的参考文献之一。从神话故事看新加坡，雾里看花，增添几分想象的空间，也明白逃到柔佛重整旗鼓的马六甲王族后代强调马来政权的用意。

1349年汪大渊出版《岛夷志略》之日竟然是《马来纪年》中新加坡拉王朝即将面临覆灭之时，真是历史性的巧合！

我的小学时代必须读新加坡历史，当时的课本是根据《马来纪年》的记载。教科书说到新加坡拉王朝的兴起，与新加坡人喜欢前去度假的印尼民丹岛（Bintan Island）还有点历史渊源。大约公元1300年，巨港王子山尼拉乌他马（San Nila Utama）从民丹岛来到淡马锡，见到一头巨兽跑过，当时随行的老人家说那是“Singa”，印度巴利文（Pali）“狮子”的意思。山尼拉乌他马是廖内女王的女婿，女王给他配备与人手，在Singapura（狮子城）建立起新加坡拉王朝。

（San Nila Utama从民丹岛乘船来到淡马锡，建立新加坡拉王朝。新加坡经历了繁荣的14世纪）

山尼拉乌他马很快的便在新加坡河边的“禁山”（福康宁山，Fort Canning）建立起统治中心，四周还有石墙围着，禁止普通百姓上山。新加坡拉王朝共有五个君主：（1）山尼拉乌他马（San Nila Utama），（2）Sri Vicrama Vira，（3）Sri Rama Vicrama，（4）Sri Maharaja，（5）Raja Iskandar Shah。在这段时期，新加坡拉是个大国，各方来的商贾络绎不绝，港口人烟稠密，禁山上有花园、水池，景色优美。

（禁泉，只让王妃使用）

马来群岛是个多事之秋，新加坡拉身处马来群岛中央，一直受到强大邻邦的威胁，北有暹罗（泰国），南有满者伯夷（Majapahit）。1349年左右，暹罗派了70艘战船攻打新加坡拉，一个月都攻不下。这时，一支中国船队从南中国海驶来，暹罗以为是新加坡拉请来的救兵，仓皇退兵。

1365年左右，新加坡拉王朝的末代皇帝Iskandar Shah听信谗言，误以为王妃不贞，将她处死。王妃的父亲是朝中首相，为了报复，他秘密写信给满者伯夷国王，将新加坡拉的防御情况和国家机密泄露出去，首相甚至在迎敌时打开城门，使到满者伯夷轻易地占领了新加坡拉，Iskandar Shah则逃到马来半岛，后来在马六甲重建基业。

（新加坡拉王朝的皇帝共有五位，山下是新加坡河口）

新加坡拉王朝覆灭有另一个版本，满者伯夷洗劫新加坡拉之后就鸣金收兵，暹罗则心有不甘，再度派大兵入侵，控制新加坡拉，并设酋长来管理。当时旧港（巨港，Palembang）的王子拜里米苏拉（Parameswara，意思是the bravest man）来到新加坡，与酋长起冲突，把酋长杀死。暹罗国王大怒，派兵惩罚，拜里米苏拉撤离新加坡，辗转去到马六甲，兴建叱咤一时的马六甲王朝。后来他改名为Iskandar Shah。

再回头看看暹罗攻打新加坡拉，久攻不下的情节。《岛夷志略》的“暹条”中，也提到一批暹罗人围困淡马锡，双方僵持不下。幸亏适逢一支中国外交使团经过，才解除淡马锡的困境。

“（暹罗）近年以七十余艘来侵单马锡，攻打城池，一月不下。本处闭关而守，不敢与争。遇爪哇使臣经过，暹人闻知乃遁，遂掠昔里而归。”

1822年，哥罗福Dr. John Crawfurd 第一次造访新加坡，2月3日的日记记录他在新加坡古镇之城墙范围内散步，他从海滩开始，大约绕着现在的政府大厦前大草场边缘，走到“一道城墙”。他沿着城墙一直走到一座山丘（福康宁山）。他又沿着新加坡河，回到起点。他估计城墙底部宽约16英尺（5米），城墙往上逐渐变得窄小。城墙的高度约八九英尺（2.4-2.7米），长度从海岸到山脚约一英里（1.6公里，靠近现在的国家博物馆），约三分二的长度与北面的小溪平行（后来小溪被开凿成史丹福河Stamford Canal）。隔年，哥罗福接替法夸（Col. William Farquhar），成为新加坡第二任驻扎官。

（图右方的城墙往上走，可能是当年马来王的皇宫）

（当年的古城墙可能沿着今天的Stamford Road延伸）

同年12月23日，新加坡第一任驻扎官法夸写信给莱佛士的秘书霍尔（Lt. L. W. Hull）：“从政府山（福康宁山）向西朝向军事司令住家院子的地段至今仍未被占用。只有东北边靠近马来线路的西端部分，在我们建立新加坡前，已经有一个华人甘蜜园。”

18世纪，苏格兰船长Alexander Hamilton（1689-1723）在他的自传《A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia》写道：

"In Anno 1703 I called at Johor on my way to China, and he (Sultan Abdul Jalil) treated me very kindly, and made me a present of the Island of Singapore, but I told him it could be of no use to a private person, though a proper place for a company to settle a colony on, lying in the centre of trade, and being accommodated with good rivers and safe harbours, so conveniently situated that all winds served shipping both to go out and come into those rivers. The soil is black and fat, and the woods abound in good masts for shipping and timber for building. I have seen large beans growing wild in the woods, not inferior to the best in Europe for taste and beauty; and sugar cane five or six inches round growing wild also."

从种种蛛丝马迹看来，新加坡的前身淡马锡在那个久远的年代，曾经有过峥嵘的岁月，只不过在混乱的时局与成王败寇的年代中逐渐被遗忘，护城墙、《岛夷志略》、《诸番志》、《马来纪年》等都为新加坡的前身增添几分谜情。

当然到了19世纪，要复兴新加坡这么一个古老的海港，确实需要英国东印度公司那样的集团，有军事资源，有商业方针，有魄力。莱佛士坚持新加坡应当保留自由贸易港的地位，就已经对新加坡的再生，发挥了重大的策略效用。直到今天，新加坡还是沿着自由贸易港的方针，向前迈进。